The Intersection of Philosophy, Theology and Neurology: The Enduring Question of Prayer.

When my grandmother was first diagnosed with cancer, her immediate response was to turn to Paath^[1] (a form of prayer in Sikhism). Having raised two kids on her own and enduring social isolation as a result of doing so, a practical and logical woman chose spirituality and faith during an unexpected difficult period.

To quote Ralph W. Hood Jr. & Peter C. Hill, prayer at its core is defined as “communication addressed to God”^[2]. This communication has its own varying types including confessional, thanksgiving, meditative and devotional. Historically, prayer has played a vital role across varying cultures and communities and has accompanied humanity as consistently as language itself: be it the ancient Egypt hymns written to Ra, the ‘Lord of Truth’^[3] who ensured the sun would rise once again; the Romans who believed that neglecting offerings to the gods could endanger the state and even Confucian China where rites of ancestor veneration resembled prayers for guidance and harmony. When my grandmother turned to paath after her cancer diagnosis, she was not simply acting out of cultural habit but partaking in a deeply human tradition: one that transcends several philosophical arguments on rationality yet underpins theological and neurological perspectives of derivative benefit of the practice itself. The purpose of prayer and the rationality of the practice itself is a historically, highly discussed subject. Plato’s Euthyphro^[4] questions if prayer itself moves the gods and has a reflecting impact on fate or the practice in itself merely reflects an innate, human need. Thomas Aquinas, mediaeval scholar, underpins prayer with Aristotelian logic^[5], contending that while God’s will endures as eternal, prayer shapes the “means” through which that will is realized.  In The Enlightenment^[6]renowned critic of religion Voltaire^[7] admitted “If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him”^[8], admittedly hinting at the psychological inevitably of prayer. Locke^[9] argued that faith should be backed up with reason, and that interpretation of religious scriptures should be done so with rationality. This highly disputable concept opens a wide scope of discussion and raises the glaring question of considering the inconsistencies of everyday life, is it truly irrational to turn to prayer, even if it cannot be logically justified[1] [2] ?

Pascal, Hume, Kierkegaard and the Prayer Paradox

To answer the question of the rationale behind prayer, this essay assumes the stance of a theist. This clarification is crucial as the very nature of religion entails a foundation of subjectivity and so an established perspective on the existence of God influences drawn conclusions and the direction of exploration. The role of rationality in the context of prayer is an enduring debate, with Christian Apologist Blaise Pascal justifying prayer by saying “[t]he heart has its reasons which reason knows nothing of,”^[10] (Pascal, Pensées §343), thereby emphasising that authentic prayer transcends reasoning and logic, and divine intervention prevails over any justification. To supplement, Pascal’s Wager^[11], which argues that believing in God is the most rational “bet” since the potential gain of eternal salvation infinitely outweighs the finite costs of belief. In this context, prayer becomes a concept of prudential reasoning: if God does stand to exist, one gains everything; if not, little is lost. On the other hand, Thomas Aquinas offered an alternating synthesis when arguing that prayer in itself does not change God’s eternal will but rather strongly aligns the believer with His divine plan, thereby strongly integrating religious conviction with Aristotelian rationality. Offering an opposing perception, Kierkegaard insisted that prayer exemplifies the “leap of faith” - radicalizing the discussion and emphasizing on the role of prayer as a form of commitment that transcends logic, where subjective interactions with God prevail over external proof. Together, these varied perceptions showcase how the concept of prayer sits persistently, yet uneasily at the boundary of faith and reason.

When my father lost his job amidst the pandemic, burdened with responsibility and the fear of being unable to provide for his family of four, he turned to religious fasting and paath. Similarly, each exam season, no matter how much I’ve studied, I always see myself scribbling ‘Jai Mata Di’ (hail the mother Goddess) at the top of my paper before beginning my exam. But why pray at such times? God does not hand out jobs or 100% scores on exams, however, during times of anxiety or tension, God provides a space to turn to, a space to process and release. Perhaps it is more rational to utilize the time spent on fasting and prayer to find employment opportunities and complete last minute exam preparation. However, Pascal’s theory reminds us that while this may seem irrational, individuals across the globe are seen to turn to a higher power during times of turmoil.

In juxtaposition to this, philosophical sceptic David Hume states “[t]he evidence for a miracle is always outweighed by the evidence against”^[12] (David Hume, Of Miracles, Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, Section X i–ii) thereby implying that claims of divine intervention should be regarded as irrational and incompatible with empirical evidence, as it contradicts the human understanding of lived experiences with natural laws. To fairly consider the validity of providence, it is required that the probability of divine intervention surpasses the probability of natural laws and empirically, scientific and natural laws are more credible. No matter how convincing the testimony, to claim that an event justifies the suspension of natural laws and the intervention of the divine would be to go against the foundation of scientific reasoning, which as claimed by Hume, remain the cornerstones of rational belief.

Ginette Sainfort, a 60-year-old-survivor of the 2010 Haiti earthquake who was pulled out after being buried in rubble for 6 days, is likely to disagree with Hume. Upon being rescued she shared, “I always said a prayer, ‘God, don’t let me die here. I want to get out.’”^[13]. She claims that her prayer and divine intervention played a role in her rescue, and that this event remains a testimony of the effectiveness of pure prayer.

To claim that divine intervention led to her survival, from Hume’s perspective, is to accept a concept contrary to science and rationality. However, Søren Kierkegaard^[14], Danish philosopher and theologian serves an alternate perspective; he claims that prayer is less about the external outcome, but more about changing the self and transforming through faith. Through the lens of Kierkegaard, Sainfort’s assertion need not be rational for its value lies in the subjective truth it holds for her - which Kierkegaard defined as the ‘essence of true faith’. Following this reasoning, my grandmother’s rationale behind turning to prayer when battling cancer is irrelevant, for its significance is subjective and up for individual and circumstantial interpretation.

In Search of Meaning? Ask the Divine.

Across major religions throughout the world, including Christianity, Hinduism and Islam, prayer holds more than just cultural value. It is a testament of transformation, communal identity, commitment and compliance.

Christianity describes prayer as a mechanism of establishing and maintaining a relationship with God. It strongly highlights the perspective that prayer is an interaction, through which God responds according to his will. Implying the role that humans may play, through prayer, in order to influence how things work out, the Bible states, “This is the confidence we have in approaching God: that if we ask anything according to his will, he hears us.^[15]” (1 John 5:14 (NIV)). Prayer simply exceeds rational, not by challenging it but by exercising faith in godly responsiveness which extends beyond logic and what is observable.

The Bhagavad Gita, a vital scripture in Hinduism states karma, a theory which implies that fate is already written based on our actions in our previous lives and as humans, our only role is to go about fulfilling our duty in order to ascend to a purer version of ourselves. Implying that prayer is a tool to align oneself with the righteous path, maintain discipline and purify intention rather than to alter destiny, the Bhagavad Gita states “You have a right to perform your prescribed duties, but you are not entitled to the fruits of your actions,”^[16] (Bhagavad Gita 2.47). In the case of the Bhagavad Gita, prayer is a form of maintaining spiritual discipline, not a transactional proceeding. Its value is held in its ability to influence internal transformation, grounded in supernatural continuity across existences.

In Islam, however, prayer is defined as a form of submission and a display of obedience, a mechanism of maintaining a relationship with Allah (ﷻ) and purifying the soul. This obedience is termed as Ṣalāh - one of the Five Pillars of Islam^[17] wherein the objective is to align life around God's command. In this context, rational and natural laws remain subordinated to divine will. Prayer is an expression of trust in the Almighty and the unseen, reflecting a deep commitment to faith.

While core values of these major religions differ, prayer is considered transrational, rather than naturalistic. This conception leans more towards the claims of Pascal, which are grounded in the perception that prayer transcends rationality and exists in a realm of its own, separate from the natural world and its laws.

Prayer beyond Religion: The Secularist and Psychological Aspect

Despite the theological discussion on the religious value of prayer, increasingly, the neurological, social and psychological benefits of prayer and its value as a functional practice in secularist perspective are discussed.

William James, psychologist and philosopher, provides one of the earliest recorded secular interpretations of prayer. In his work, James claims that the value of prayer should be determined not through the rationality of the metaphysical claims, but through the psychological implications on the lives of praying individuals. He famously claimed that prayers are “the feelings, acts, and experiences of individual men in their solitude.^[18]” thereby emphasising the reflective role that prayer may have, providing a deeply personal space to process emotions, cultivate adaptability and confront existential questions and situations. In this context, to pray is rational, not because it affirms the existence of God but because of the reflective space it offers and its psychological functions. Sainfort’s experience can be reanalysed through this lens: while it may seem irrational to claim that divine intervention was the cause of her survival, the psychological implications of prayer may have influenced her perception and thereby led her to believe that prayer did indeed assist her throughout her difficult period.

The value of prayer in secular perspective can be highlighted through the reflections of Viktor Frankl in Man’s Search for Meaning^[19]. Post his experiences enduring the concentration camps of Nazi Germany, Frankl argued that survival was not tied to physical fortitude but to inner orientation and balance toward meaning. For several survivors, prayer - even if directed to a God they were unsure of - provided a consistent grounding of hope and endurance. In this understanding, the value of prayer is less regarded in a metaphysical sense and more as a tool of endurance and existential survival, a manner of setting a scaffolding of purpose in the face of chaos. Similarly, in contemporary context, meditative practices such as mindfulness are increasingly employed to help individuals confront inner challenges such as depression and anxiety thereby illustrating the value of prayer beyond the theological sense.

From a more empirical sense, several experiments and theories have proven the value of prayer from a psychological perspective. The Broaden and Build Theory of Positive Emotions by Barbara Fredrickson^[20] presents a compelling discernment on how prayer may nurture positive emotions such as hope, resilience and gratitude. When in a positive state, Barbara claims your brain opens and it is much easier to solve problems, and deal with tough situations, thereby broadening one’s thought-action repertoire. Prayer often involves practicing gratitude, seeking peace and overall promoting positive emotions, which in a way, trains the brain to be more resilient and flexible in times of turmoil, consequently acting as a tool for self-regulation in times of stress and uncertainty.

Moreover, John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory^[21] explains the relationships of devotees with God from a psychological lens. It can be connoted that prayer may reproduce the feeling of security provided by a primary caregiver. Just as infants remain attached to their caregivers as stated by Bowlby, believers may view God as an attachment figure - one who is unconditionally present, ever forgiving and a provider of support and comfort especially during testing times. This spiritual connection offers a feeling that can be especially fruitful in increasing feelings of safety and reducing existential crisis, thereby showcasing how the rationale behind prayer can often hold psychological weight.

Religion by nature surrounds themes of community and social connection, which is why it is imperative to consider the sociological rationale of prayer. Sociologist Émile Durkheim highlights, through his theory of ‘Collective Effervescence^[22]’, how community practices, such as prayer, generate a sense of shared identity, excitement and provide a sense of belonging, one of the key aspects underscored by Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Such practices bind individuals together and create a unified sense of self, promoting individual sense of value and encouraging social continuity during times of disruption, thus showcasing how sociologically, prayer as a practice has adequate rationale behind it, helping achieve a key aspect of individuals’ needs.

In recent years, research in the field of neurology suggests tangible evidence of the practice of prayer. Neurologist Andrew Newberg utilised brain imaging on student practitioners of meditative prayer. His research showcases how prayer and meditation trigger the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala, regions of the brain responsible for empathy, self-awareness and attention. Specifically, prayer has proven to improve neural plasticity, enhance emotional balance and reduce stress related activity in the amygdala. Regardless of the metaphysical efficacy of prayer, prayer has proven to have neurological benefits and the ability to influence brain chemistry, encouraging psychological resilience.

Considering Hume’s perception, while it may be considered irrational to say that prayer induces miracles and divine intervention, it is important to account for the sociological, psychological and neurological empirical evidence that suggests the value of the practice of prayer, a testament to the rationale of several theists across the globe.

In the end, the rationale behind prayer resists as a single, universal answer - because it lies at the intersection of faith, reason and the human experience. Pascal reminds us that the heart persists beyond reason and logic while Hume urges caution insisting that miracles, no matter how incredible, cannot override natural laws. Kierkegaard reframed the matter entirely by suggesting that the essence of prayer lies in the personal and internal transformation that prayer facilitates, rather than the alteration of the external world. Across various religious traditions - Christianity, Hinduism, Islam and Judaism - the pattern of prayer portrayed as a practice to transcend cultural boundaries while taking unique forms emerges. Outside of the theological discipline, psychologists, neurologists and sociologists continue to demonstrate its value for community, resilience and identity.

I don’t know if prayer cured my grandmother's cancer or if it took away from the pain of chemotherapy or the emotional turmoil of losing her hair. Maybe prayer led to a form of divine intervention that rationality simply cannot justify and will forever endure as inexplicable. Perhaps, prayer gave her the mental fortitude to endure the same, remain optimistic and search for mental tranquillity in a time of chaos but the extent to which this is true, only she can validate. In conclusion, due to the subjective grounds on which theology as a discipline sustains, the concept of prayer and the rationale behind it cannot be universally defined due to difference in lived experiences and so, to answer the question ‘Why Pray?’ – my only answer is – ask yourself.

Word Count: 2586

Bibliography

●      Ryan, Aidan. “Why Do I Pray?” The Furrow, vol. 55, no. 10, 2004, pp. 550–53. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27665025. Accessed 23 June 2025.

●      Kreps, Daniel. “Neurotheology: Where Religion and Science Collide.” NPR, 15 Dec. 2010, www.npr.org/2010/12/15/132078267/neurotheology-where-religion-and-science-collide. Accessed 23 June 2025.

●      “Religion Dictionary.” Association of Religion Data Archives, The ARDA, www.thearda.com/research/religion-dictionary. Accessed 23 June 2025.

●      D’Antuono, Matthew. “The Heart Has Its Reasons That Reason Does Not Know.” National Catholic Register, 21 Nov. 2022, www.ncregister.com/blog/the-heart-has-its-reasons-that-reason-does-not-know. Accessed 23 June 2025.

●      Hume, David. “Of Miracles.” An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, Section X, Philosophical Classics, DavidHume.org, https://davidhume.org/texts/e/10. Accessed 23 June 2025.

●      “Six Days Buried After Haiti Quake: A Survivor’s Story, Faith.” Miami Herald, 12 Jan. 2025, www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/americas/haiti/article238980298.html. Accessed 23 June 2025.

●      “Søren Kierkegaard.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Fall 2022 ed., plato.stanford.edu/entries/kierkegaard/. Accessed 23 June 2025.

●      “1 John 5:14.” Bible Hub, biblehub.com/1_john/5-14.htm. Accessed 23 June 2025.

●      “Five Pillars of Islam.” Islamic Relief, IslamicRelief.org, https://islamic-relief.org/five-pillars-of-islam/. Accessed 23 June 2025.

●      “Analysis of William James.” Religious Experience Summer Seminar, Emory University, 3 Sept. 2018, scholarblogs.emory.edu/religiousexperience2018/2018/09/03/analysis-of-william-james/. Accessed 23 June 2025.

●      Fredrickson, Barbara L. “The Broaden‑and‑Build Theory of Positive Emotions.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol. 359, no. 1449, 29 Sept. 2004, pp. 1367–1377, PubMed Central, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1693418/. Accessed 23 June 2025.

●      “Bowlby’s Attachment Theory and Psychodynamic Therapy.” Institute for Clinical Social Work Blog, 2018, www.icsw.edu/icsw_blog/bowlbys-attachment-theory-and-psychodynamic-therapy/. Accessed 23 June 2025.

●      Newberg, Andrew B., et al. “The Neurophysiology of Spiritual Experiences.” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, vol. 23, no. 10, 2011, pp. 2533–2540, PubMed Central, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3306345/. Accessed 23 June 2025.

Endnotes

^[i] “Religion Dictionary.” Association of Religion Data Archives, The ARDA, www.thearda.com/research/religion-dictionary. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[ii] D’Antuono, Matthew. “The Heart Has Its Reasons That Reason Does Not Know.” National Catholic Register, 21 Nov. 2022, www.ncregister.com/blog/the-heart-has-its-reasons-that-reason-does-not-know. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[iii] Hume, David. “Of Miracles.” An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, Section X, Philosophical Classics, DavidHume.org, https://davidhume.org/texts/e/10. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[iv] “Six Days Buried After Haiti Quake: A Survivor’s Story, Faith.” Miami Herald, 12 Jan. 2025, www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/americas/haiti/article238980298.html. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[v] “Søren Kierkegaard.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Fall 2022 ed., plato.stanford.edu/entries/kierkegaard/. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[vi] “1 John 5:14.” Bible Hub, biblehub.com/1_john/5-14.htm. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[vii] “Five Pillars of Islam.” Islamic Relief, IslamicRelief.org, https://islamic-relief.org/five-pillars-of-islam/. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[viii] “Analysis of William James.” Religious Experience Summer Seminar, Emory University, 3 Sept. 2018, scholarblogs.emory.edu/religiousexperience2018/2018/09/03/analysis-of-william-james/. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[ix] Fredrickson, Barbara L. “The Broaden‑and‑Build Theory of Positive Emotions.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol. 359, no. 1449, 29 Sept. 2004, pp. 1367–1377, PubMed Central, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1693418/. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[x] “Bowlby’s Attachment Theory and Psychodynamic Therapy.” Institute for Clinical Social Work Blog, 2018, www.icsw.edu/icsw_blog/bowlbys-attachment-theory-and-psychodynamic-therapy/. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[xi] Newberg, Andrew B., et al. “The Neurophysiology of Spiritual Experiences.” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, vol. 23, no. 10, 2011, pp. 2533–2540, PubMed Central, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3306345/. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[1] “Paath.” SikhiWiki, www.sikhiwiki.org/index.php/Paath. Accessed 21 Aug. 2025.

^[2] “Religion Dictionary.” Association of Religion Data Archives, The ARDA, www.thearda.com/research/religion-dictionary. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[3] Monderson, Frederick. The Majesty of Egyptian Gods and Temples: A Book of Egyptian Poems. AuthorHouse. Google Books, https://books.google.co.in/books?id=oiDExHxk6BEC. Accessed 21 Aug. 2025.

^[4] Geach, P. T. “PLATO’S ‘EUTHYPHRO’: An Analysis and Commentary.” The Monist, vol. 50, no. 3, 1966, pp. 369–82. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27901650. Accessed 21 Aug. 2025.

^[5] Kretzmann, Norman, and Eleonore Stump, editors. The Cambridge Companion to Aquinas. Cambridge University Press, 28 May 1993. Google Books, books.google.co.in/books?id=Fi4rA6LQN5sC. Accessed 21 Aug. 2025.

^[6] Robertson, Ritchie. “Religion and the Enlightenment: A Review Essay.” German History, vol. 25, no. 3, July 2007, pp. 422–432. Oxford Academic, doi:10.1177/0266355407079911.

^[7] Khan, Fatima. “Voltaire’s Critique of Organized Religion in Candide.” Armstrong Undergraduate Journal of History, vol. 7, no. 2, 2017, Article 11, pp. 136–139. Georgia Southern University, https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/aujh/vol7/iss2/11. doi:10.20429/aujh.2017.070211. Accessed 21 Aug. 2025.

^[8] “Voltaire: ‘If God Did Not Exist, It Would Be Necessary to Invent Him.’ What Does It Mean?” Philosophy Stack Exchange, 12 May 2023, https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/97747/voltaire-if-god-did-not-exist-it-would-be-necessary-to-invent-him-what-does-i. Accessed 21 Aug. 2025.

^[9] Heyman, Steven J. “The Light of Nature: John Locke, Natural Rights, and the Origins of American Religious Liberty.” Marquette Law Review, vol. 101, no. 3, Spring 2018, pp. 422–? [if unavailable, omit page range]. Marquette University Law School Scholarship, https://scholarship.law.marquette.edu/mulr/vol101/iss3/4. Accessed 21 Aug. 2025.

^[10] D’Antuono, Matthew. “The Heart Has Its Reasons That Reason Does Not Know.” National Catholic Register, 21 Nov. 2022, www.ncregister.com/blog/the-heart-has-its-reasons-that-reason-does-not-know. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[11] Hájek, Alan. “Pascal’s Wager.” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Fall 2022 edition, Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 11 Sept. 2022, plato.stanford.edu/entries/pascal-wager/. Accessed 21 Aug. 2025.

^[12] Hume, David. “Of Miracles.” An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, Section X, Philosophical Classics, DavidHume.org, https://davidhume.org/texts/e/10. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[13]  “Six Days Buried After Haiti Quake: A Survivor’s Story, Faith.” Miami Herald, 12 Jan. 2025, www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/americas/haiti/article238980298.html. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[14]  “Søren Kierkegaard.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta, Fall 2022 ed., plato.stanford.edu/entries/kierkegaard/. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[15] “1 John 5:14.” Bible Hub, biblehub.com/1_john/5-14.htm. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[16] Feinberg, Joel. “Duties, Rights, and Claims.” American Philosophical Quarterly, vol. 3, no. 2, 1966, pp. 137–44. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20009200. Accessed 21 Aug. 2025.

^[17] “Five Pillars of Islam.” Islamic Relief, IslamicRelief.org, https://islamic-relief.org/five-pillars-of-islam/. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[18]  “Analysis of William James.” Religious Experience Summer Seminar, Emory University, 3 Sept. 2018, scholarblogs.emory.edu/religiousexperience2018/2018/09/03/analysis-of-william-james/. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[19] Frankl, Viktor E. Man’s Search for Meaning: An Introduction to Logotherapy. Beacon Press, 1959. Google Books, books.google.co.in/books?id=W3q8R4dRZTwC. Accessed 21 Aug. 2025.

^[20]  Fredrickson, Barbara L. “The Broaden‑and‑Build Theory of Positive Emotions.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, vol. 359, no. 1449, 29 Sept. 2004, pp. 1367–1377, PubMed Central, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1693418/. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[21] “Bowlby’s Attachment Theory and Psychodynamic Therapy.” Institute for Clinical Social Work Blog, 2018, www.icsw.edu/icsw_blog/bowlbys-attachment-theory-and-psychodynamic-therapy/. Accessed 23 June 2025.

^[22]  Newberg, Andrew B., et al. “The Neurophysiology of Spiritual Experiences.” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, vol. 23, no. 10, 2011, pp. 2533–2540, PubMed Central, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3306345/. Accessed 23 June 2025.

add an abstract-like segment + add a thesis statement

use ai